Balkan Wars
Part I: The Powder Keg

“Balkan” is a Turkish word, which means “rough, mountainous territory”, and it was the name given by the Turks to the mountain range that runs across Bulgaria from west to east. The first time the name "Balkan" was used in the West for this mountain range is said to be in late 15th century and at the end of the 18th century authors started applying the name to the wider area between the Adriatic and the Black Sea. As the Europeans were calling these regions as the “Balkans”, Turks, who had first entered this region in the 5th century A.D. under the leadership of Attila, were referring to it as “Rumelia” (TR: Rumeli).

Ottoman Turks had conquered the Balkan Peninsula in the 14th and 15th centuries and added to their possessions there as late as the 16th century. It was in year 1354, when Turkish pioneers, led by Gazi Süleyman Paşa, son of Sultan Orhan, crossed the Dardanelles and took a Byzantine fortress on the Gallipoli peninsula. By the time of Sultan Murat’s death on the battlefield in 1389, the whole area from the Danube (TR: Tuna) to the Adriatic Sea and the Peloponnese (TR: Mora) was under Turkish control. Turkish territorial expansion continued until the failed second siege of Vienna (TR: Viyana) in 1683. During these centuries, millions of Turks migrated from Anatolia to the Balkans, where they lived in peaceful co-existence with the Christians.

With the Treaty of Karlowitz (TR: Karlofça) signed in 1699, Ottoman rule in the Balkans began to weaken. The pace of change in the Empire was too slow and there was a clear failure to establish political equity for the minority peoples. Furthermore, the French Revolution of 1789 had inflamed nationalistic feelings in the Balkans and the 19th century became a period in which different ethnic groups in every corner of the Empire began to seek to get rid of the Ottoman rule.

The Eastern Question

The background to the Balkan Wars lies in the emergence of nation states on the fringes of the Ottoman Empire during the 19th century. The Balkan Peninsula was a complex tapestry of ethnic, linguistic and religious minorities, many of whom were antagonistic toward Ottoman rule. In late 19th century the “Eastern Question” was a popular term used to describe the possible consequences of the power vacuum that would occur if the Ottoman Empire –the “Sick Man of Europe”- lost its control over the Balkan provinces. There were competing regional aspirations of the Great Powers, all of whom were considering this region as their own “backyard” and these aspirations would lead to diplomatic struggles between the Great Powers for influence in the Ottoman territories. Russia was longing for access to the warm waters of the Mediterranean through the Turkish straits and followed a pan-Slavic policy supporting Bulgaria and Serbia as “protector of the Orthodox Christian Slavic peoples”. Britain wanted to prevent Russia from reaching the warm waters and therefore supported the integrity of the Ottoman Empire. At the same time Britain also supported a limited expansion of Greece as a backup plan in case Ottoman integrity was no longer possible. France wished to strengthen her position in the region and Austria-Hungary wanted the continued existence of the Ottoman Empire, since both empires were multinational entities ruled by a small elite. The collapse of the one would affect the other as well. It should also be noted that for the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which had large Serbian and Croatian populations, a stronger Serbia was highly undesirable. Meanwhile Germany’s Drang nach Osten policy aspired to turn the Ottoman Empire into a de-facto colony and therefore Germany supported its integrity.

The Great Powers exploited the nationalist feelings in the region in order to destabilize and further weaken the Ottoman rule to their advantage. Their formula was simple. First the Christian minorities in the Balkans were encouraged to revolt and then they themselves would interfere and ask the Ottoman government to realize reforms that would give more rights to those minorities. If the Ottoman government would carry out the requested reforms, then they would first ask for autonomy and then independence; if not, there would be war. Naturally, autonomous or independent states would emerge after these wars.

Other Balkan nationalities were inspired by the success of the Serbians. In 1814, Greek nationalists had formed a secret organization called the “Philiki Eteria” (Friendly Society) in Odessa. With the support of wealthy Greek exile communities in Europe and USA and covert assistance from Russia, this organization launched an uprising simultaneously in Wallachia and the Peloponnese in 1821 led by Alexander Ypsilanti, aiming to create an independent Greece with the ultimate purpose of reviving the Byzantine Empire. Soon, the revolt spread to whole Greece, Crete, the Aegean Sea and Cyprus. This uprising and the accompanying violence against the local Muslims caused great anger in Istanbul, where not only the rich Greek merchants lost their wealth and influence, but also Gregory V, the Patriarch of Istanbul was executed in retaliation.

Inconclusive fighting between Greeks and Ottomans continued until 1825, when the Sublime Porte asked for help from the Governor of Egypt, Mehmet Ali Paşa. Although this support was of great value for the Ottoman efforts against the Greek movement, which managed to crush the rebellion in 1825 and recapture Athens in 1827, there was a growing pro-Greek attitude in Europe, which soon formed into a form of military alliance that turned the tide against the Turks. On 20 October 1827, the British, Russian and French fleets attacked and destroyed the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Navarino. A settlement was determined in 1832 the European powers at a conference in London; where Greece was acknowledged as an independent state. This was the first time history when a European territory of the Ottoman Empire had become an independent state. It also set an example for other ethnic groups in the Balkans and let to the further deterioration of Pax Ottomanica.

In 1839, the Sublime Porte issued a reform decree (TR: Tanzimat Fermanı) that aimed to establish a modern state structure and provide equality between Muslims and the non-Muslim ethnic groups. This decree was followed by another reform package in 1856 (TR: Islahat Fermanı), which brought about even more rights fro the minorities. The Ottoman Empire was on the path of modernization; however the reforms were also heating up the ethnic struggles.

The Greek Orthodox Church in Istanbul, which traditionally considered itself as superior to all non-Muslim subjects in the Empire, was not happy with the “equality between all groups”. As it tried to protect its influence on these groups, these groups began to work harder to have their own independent churches. Consequently, the Romanian Church was established in 1865 and the Bulgarian Church was established in 1870. They came in addition to the churches already in existence, which were the Armenian Catholic Church opened in 1830 and the Armenian Protestant Church established in 1848.

Revolts followed the opening of churches. After the failed revolutions of 1848 in Moldavia (TR: Boğdan) and Wallachia (TR: Eflak) , European intervention led to a union of these two principalities under the name Romania in 1861 and Alexander Cuza was crowned as the Prince of Romania. He was succeeded by Carol in 1866. Pan-Slavic attempts led by Russia were proving to be very successful among the Ottoman subjects of Slavic origin.

Turco-Russian War of 1877-78

In 1875, a major uprising broke out in Bosnia and Herzegovina, caused by the heavy tax burden imposed by the Ottoman rule. Rebels began to attack and pillage the property of influential Muslim citizens, who had to defend themselves since the Ottoman government was too late to intervene. Soon the uprising spread to Bulgaria. The situation in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Russian support encouraged the principalities of Serbia and Montenegro's declaration of war against the Ottoman Empire. On 8 July 1875, Russia and Austria-Hungary made the secret Reichstadt Agreement on partitioning of the Balkan Peninsula depending on the outcome of the war. However, it came to nothing, since the Ottoman Army defeated the rebels. In May-June 1876, two divisions led by Abdülkerim Nadir Paşa crushed the Bulgarian rebels. On 29 October 1876, Gazi Osman Paşa’s troops beat the Serbians in the Battle of Alexinats and stooped short from entering Belgrade only through Russian intervention.

Frequent Russian intervention in Balkan affairs was a concern for the European powers, which requested for a conference. The Istanbul Conference opened on 23 December 1876, four months after Sultan Abdülhamit II’s accession to the Ottoman throne as the successor of Sultan Murat V, who reigned only for 3 months before being deposed, due to mental illness. Murat’s predecessor, Sultan Abdülaziz was deposed by his ministers on 30 May 1876 and his death a few days later was attributed to suicide. At Istanbul Conference, which convened 9 times in 29 days, the Great Powers discussed the boundaries of one or more future autonomous Bulgarian provinces within the Ottoman Empire, but the Conference was interrupted by the Turkish foreign minister, who informed the delegates that Ottoman Empire had approved a new Constitution, which guaranteed rights and freedoms of all ethnic minorities.

Despite that, there was no consensus among the Great Powers, since Britain and France would not be happy about Russian access to the Turkish straits. Russia remained hostile towards the Ottoman Empire and declared war on 24 April 1877. The Turco-Russian War of 1877-78, which is also known in Turkish as “93 Harbi” (“War of 93” – 1293 being the year in the lunar calendar that corresponds to 1877), was a major disaster for the Ottoman Empire, which had to face a much superior Russian Army at two fronts, Caucasus and Danube. In the Caucasus front, the Ottoman Army led by Ahmet Muhtar Paşa resisted well against the Russians, beat them at Halyaz and Zivin, won the battles of Gedikler (25 August 1877) and Yahniler (4 October 1877), but could not prevent the loss of Doğubeyazıt and Ardahan. After the Russian victory at the Battle of Alacadağ on 15 October, Ottoman forces began to dissolve. Kars fell in November and Ahmet Muhtar Paşa’s defense line between Kars and Erzurum broke soon afterwards.

At the Danube front, Turks had three armies under the command of Abdülkerim Nadir Paşa, facing the Russian Army, supported by Romanian, Serbian and Montenegrin units. Hostilities commenced on 21 June 1877 with a major Russian offensive. After capturing Trnova and Nicopolis (TR: Niğbolu), Russians proceeded to the Pass of Shipka. The most notable success of the Turkish army in this period was the legendary defense of Pleven (TR: Plevne), where Turkish troops led by Gazi Osman Paşa resisted the Russian siege for 5 months, giving up only facing the danger of starvation when enemy forces cut off all supply routes to the fortified city. After the fall of Pleven, Russians advanced into Ottoman territory rapidly, taking Sofia, Stara Zagora, Plovdiv and crossing the River Maritsa (TR: Meriç). Edirne fell on 20 January 1878 and Russians penetrated into the suburbs of Istanbul.

Having suffered severe losses itself and being under pressure from the British, Russia accepted the truce offered by the Ottoman Empire, but continued to move towards Istanbul. Britain sent a fleet of battleships to deter Russia from entering the city, and Russian troops stopped at San Stefano (TR: Ayastefanos, current day Yeşilköy) in the suburbs of the Ottoman capital. Eventually, with the Treaty of San Stefano signed on 3 March 1878, the Ottoman Empire recognized the independence of Romania, Serbia, Montenegro and the autonomy of Bulgaria. The Great Powers later forced modifications of this treaty in the Congress of Berlin. Accordingly, Bulgaria would be split, according to earlier agreements among the Great Powers that precluded the creation of a large new Slavic state: the northern and eastern parts to become principalities as before (Principality of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia), though with different governors; and the Macedonian region, originally part of Bulgaria under San Stefano, would return to direct Ottoman administration. The war resulted in decrease of the Muslim population in Bulgaria between 1876 and 1882. It is estimated that 262,000 died of various reasons and 515,000 were forced to immigrate.

Nevertheless, the Congress of Berlin created severe tensions among the Balkan nations, because it did not follow the principle of nationality when it created the new boundaries. In many places it was not possible to follow it because different nationalities had lived there for centuries side by side. None of the Balkan nations achieved its national unification inside one state, and that unification became the main goal in their foreign policies. That urge resulted in a set of crises and diplomatic attempts aimed to settle the problems arising from Berlin, including the signing of the “League of Three Emperors” convention by Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1881 did not please the Balkan nationalists.

To start with, Bulgarians were not satisfied with the arrangements in Berlin. In 1885, Bulgarian bands in East Rumelia attacked the Ottoman Government House in Plovdiv (TR: Filibe) and forced Governor Gavril Paşa to leave the city. They took control of all transportation and communication vehicles and declared the annexation of East Rumelia to the Principality of Bulgaria. The parliament in Sofia ratified the annexation and Prince Alexander was crowned as the Prince of Bulgaria and East Rumelia.

Meanwhile, as the whole Balkans had turned into a powder keg, an uprising broke out in the island of Crete (TR: Girit), where the rebels were asking for unification with Greece. European powers intervened and persuaded the Sublime Porte to grant autonomy for Crete. However the Greeks were insisting on unification. The crisis turned into a full-scale war in 1897, in which the Turkish army drew back the Greeks in Thessaly (TR: Tesalya) and Epirus (TR: Epir) and approached Athens. The war ended with another intervention by the Great Powers who also secured favorable armistice terms for the Greek side. 

The Macedonian issue

Sultan Abdülhamit’s policy to deal with these troubles in the Balkans was to exploit the conflicts between the newly independent Balkan states and prevent them from unifying against the Ottoman Empire. There was justification in this policy, because it was a time when there were no common goals among the Balkan states, but instead a great distrust. It was for this that Abdülhamit II managed to slow down the movements in the Balkans. However, the Sublime Porte did not dare to act against the fait accompli of Bulgaria and with an agreement signed in 1886 it approved the annexation with the condition that Rhodopi (TR: Rodop), a town with Muslim majority, would remain within the boundaries of the Ottoman Empire. The idea of a “Greater Bulgaria” required access to the Aegean Sea and the acquisition of Macedonia. However, it was not only Bulgarian who had laid eyes on this Ottoman province. Serbia and Greece were also claiming that this province should belong to them and this collision of interest had already turned Macedonia into a breeding ground for bands and terrorist organizations, mostly Bulgarians who were worrisome to the Serbs and the Greeks

Abdülhamit’s attempts to bring reforms to Macedonia in 1902 were futile. In 1903, a Salonica committee bombed the Ottoman Bank branch in the city and suddenly the revolt was in full swing with Macedonian Slavs and Albanians joining the Bulgarians. The revolt went on for three months before being suppressed by the Turkish army.

Turkish historian Şevket Süreyya Aydemir remembers the Macedonia of his childhood: “The whole Macedonia was surrounded by raids, arson, kidnappings and ransom money paid from government coffers, train robberies, destruction and bloodshed. People were uneasy, they were always on guard. Villagers of Macedonia from any religion and language, they could not know as they were going to bed, if they would be able to open their eye the next morning. Muslim villages, Muslim farms and event towns were under constant danger of being raided by bands. Macedonia was under the reign of terror and anarchy. Gangs that’s were stronger than the government itself were thinking that it was their time for retaliation… In fact, the Ottoman government was also raiding villages, trying to find out cradles of bands, seizing guns and grenades. Churches, priest lodges, schools and teacher hostels were like gun storages. Those who were caught were given sentences of prison, exile and in some cases even execution. However intervention from the Russian Consul General, his help and intercession would immediately come to rescue. When I was I a child, probably during the uprising of 1905, I can remember members of Greek and Bulgarian bands freed from the prison in Edirne by the Russian Consul General and brought back to their villages amidst cheers and celebrations…” 1

In 1908, the Young Turk Revolution restored the constitutional order in Turkey, which brought about a representative and multi-ethnic Ottoman parliament (out of 275 deputies, 140 were Turks, 87 were Muslim minorities and 48 were non-Muslims including 23 Greeks, 12 Armenians, 5 Jews, 4 Bulgarians, 3 Serbs and 1 Romanian) as well as greater hopes for reforms and autonomy among the ethnic groups in the Balkans. In October 1908, attempting to benefit from the domestic political fragility of the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina, which it had occupied since 1878, and Bulgaria declared full independence, which was recognized by the Sublime Porte in 1909. The next year, not only an Albanian insurrection broke out in Kosovo but also Montenegro became an independent kingdom.

None of the Balkan nationalities were satisfied what they had gained during the course of these developments and their appetite was ever growing. Serbia was looking to former Serb territories in the south, especially Novi Pazar (TR: Yenipazar) and Kosovo (TR: Kosova). Greeks were hoping for unification with Crete and reversing the defeat of 1897. Bulgarians had their eyes on Ottoman Thrace and Macedonia where the majority of population was their compatriots. Events would develop rapidly after 1908 and the Ottoman Empire would be stripped from its remaining territories in the Balkans only in a few years.

Notes:

1. Aydemir, Ş.Ş., 1970. Makedonya'dan Orta Asya'ya Enver Paşa, Istanbul: Remzi Kitabevi.